Cross-Curricular Literacy

Functions of Language

Language is something that serves many purposes in society and everyday life. When we are learning language, we are using the language. When we are learning about something, we are using language to learn. This is true for both written and spoken language. Language is “central in the learning process” (Derewianka, 2020, 1). Considering the functions of languages opens up language learning to all curriculum subjects, rather than only language arts class. Beacco et al. outline six dimensions of literacy that apply across all subjects (2015, 29):

1. Comprehending/understaind in-depth (the meaning of an utterance, a text, a problem)
2. Communicating and negotiating knowledge
3. Reflecting on the acquisitional process, the learning outcomes and their personal as well as social uses
4. Applying knowledge to and within other contexts
5. Participating in the socio-scientific world
6. Transferring generalizable knowledge, skills, attitudes

Considering these different dimensions of language and applying them across the different subjects means more opportunities to learn about knowledge and will help students develop a deeper understanding of language and how to use it.

It is well known that an insufficient command of language or the use of an inappropriate register can be an obstacle to the acquisition of knowledge and to school success, especially for groups of vulnerable learners (disadvantaged learners or those with a migrant background or other marginalised groups).

Beacco, et al., 2015, p. 23

The Writing Revolution

The principles of the Writing Revolution are (Hochman, 2023):

1. Students need explicit instruction in writing, beginning in the early elementary grades.
2. Sentences are the building blocks of all writing.
3. When embedded in the content of the curriculum, writing instruction is a powerful teaching tool.
4. The content of the curriculum drives the rigor of the writing activities.
5. Grammar is best taught in the context of student writing.
6. The two most important phases of the writing process are planning and revising.

The book has strategies such as “because, but, so” that has students write three different sentences with these words that start with the same sentence stem. For example, if a class is learning about climate change, their three sentences might be:

Climate change is important to learn about because…

Climate change is important to learn about but…

Climate change is important to learn about so…

Each student would finish the stems different based on what they’ve been learning, so they’ll be forming the learning into coherent sentences while also getting practice with because, but, and so. This will help them learn the differences between the use of these words while reinforcing curriculum-based learning.

Their book has many other strategies that can be used in all subjects. Their website also has printable templates for these strategies. Check it out here: https://www.thewritingrevolution.org/resources/book-resources/

Academic Language

There are many different available definitions for what academic language is. Overall, it is language that is more technical and complex with more domain specific vocabulary. I don’t remember having much experience with academic language before college and university courses. Teaching students how to understand academic language is important because it ensures “success in the wider society” (Beacco, et al., 2015, 25). Even for students that don’t go on to post-secondary education, the ability to read and comprehend academic language gives them the ability for personal inquiries and to find and read credible sources.

Structuring and Scaffolding Academic Talk

As students begin to use academic language, they need support. They can’t be expected to incorporate more sophisticated words and syntax without explicit learning. Scaffolding supports and gradually reducing them as students are able to use academic language independently can ensure success with academic language. Here are some strategies that can be used in intermediate classrooms based on the students’ needs:

Morphology

Morphological awareness is important for students’ understanding of academic words and texts because there’s a high frequency of morphologically complex words in academic language and the morphemes of academic words bring important meaning to academic texts. (Townsend, 2015, 378) Teaching students language at the morpheme level can help them expand their vocabulary more quickly than if they were taught meanings of words individually.

Teach Tier 3 Words

Academic language generally contains content specific words. These are considered to be Tier 3 words. While Tier 2 words, words that are characteristic of written language that aren’t limited to a single domain, are important for students to understand, Tier 3 words need to be taught for the applicable domain. These are words that students may not have heard before and therefore need to develop an understanding of. Additionally, these Tier 3 words can be provided to students in a word bank so they can use them during their writing or other activity. (Beck, 2013, 20)

Debate Nuances of Word Meanings

In Townsend’s article, an example a social studies teacher used for debating the nuances of words is discussed. The social studies teacher, Mrs. Murphy, provided her students with a word bank of adjectives. They discussed which word best described the photos chosen by Mrs. Murphy of the Dust Bowl, since that was the topic being covered. The activity connected to curriculum content while also deepening students’ understandings of the chosen words. (Townsend, 2015, 383-384)

Talk about Talking

Although using academic language with students provides exposure, even more can be learned about discussing thinking about academic language. This can include discussion the purpose of a discussion (e.g. To see how others interpret a text or to practice explaining concepts) or thinking aloud during discussions. When making a prediction, talk about it being a prediction or a hypothesis. Talk about the function of the language being used so students explicitly learn what the expectations are around academic language. (Zwiers, 2014, 70-73)

Sentence Stems

When introducing new academic words to students, it is helpful to provide them with sentence starters or layouts. With the more complex syntax used in academic language, sentence stems work to scaffold writing as students become more comfortable with the different sentence structures. (Finley, 2014)

Paraphrase or Summarize

Having students paraphrase or summarize a paragraph of text requires students to find meaning in academic language while also sorting through the information and reorganizing it. (Zwiers, 2014, 68) When we read, we don’t remember what we’re read word for word. We remember the ideas of what was presented and the main points. By having students summarize, they are rewording ideas in ways they can understand and they are showing that they understand what they have read.

Controversial or Provocative Statements

Presenting a controversial statement to students about the topic that is being learned invites students to form arguments and ignites thinking. Strong arguments need supporting evidence which leads to using academic language. Exploring controversial ideas also makes learning more exciting and relevant, since in the real world, there are often incorrect and controversial opinions made about topics in the news. (Zwiers, 2014, 63-64)

Metaphors and Analogies

To describe and clarify new concepts, metaphors can be used. In Zwiers example, a teacher compares a leech to a character they’re reading about that steals money. Comparing concepts to known things can help students understand things better as long as the comparison is relevant to them. Depending on where students are from and where the school is, certain types of whether or cultural norms may not be common knowledge within a given classroom. Building connections with students and being able to connect to prior knowledge is important when considering metaphors as a strategy for developing academic language. (Zwiers, 2014, 59-60)

Personify

Not to be confused with the literary device of personification, personifying concepts or words to help students understand them means to act out them out. This can bring excitement and fun to the classroom and helps the learning stick. It brings relevance to learning and can change the atmosphere of the classroom. (Zwiers, 2014, 61-62)

Guide Students During Conversations

When discussing curriculum content with students, a way to reinforce the use of academic language is by guiding them during a conversation. This can include restating things they have said with more academic language, asking questions that requires deeper thinking and elaboration of thoughts, providing positive and encouraging feedback, or restating what is said by a student to emphasis a particular point. These strategies must be improvised but they expose students to more academic language without revamping a lesson while encouraging them to share their thoughts and ideas. (Zwiers, 2014, 64-67, 69)

Gestures and Facial Expressions

Nonverbal cues can be used to help clarify difficult language and abstract concepts. In Zwiers article, the example provided is when the teacher says “however” while she is talking to her class, “she moved one hand in an arc in the opposite direction” to emphasis the contradicting points (Zwiers, 2014, 55-56). Because this is a gesture used frequently, the students understand that it signifies a turning point in what the teacher is saying. When using such gestures, it’s important that it is introduced in a way that all students understand it and the language it represents, especially ELL students.

Teaching Text Structures

In literature, there are many different structures that have different functions for both fiction and non-fiction. It’s not enough to assume students will implicitly learn each structure as they learn to read and read to learn. Each structure has it’s own format and clues as to what the author is trying to convey. Teaching students to look for clue words can help them determine what text structure they are reading, where it’s a compare and contrast essay or persuasive text. Teaching them to write with the different structures can also further their understanding of the differences. This guide by the National Literacy Trust is an excellent resource that outlines the differences between text structures.

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References

Beacco, J.-C., M. Fleming, F. Goullier, E. Thürmann, H. Vollmer, & J. Sheils. (2015). “The role of language in the construction and application of knowledge” in The Language Dimensions in All Subjects: A Handbook of Curriculum Development and Teacher Training. Council of Europe. (pp. 21-31)

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing words to life : robust vocabulary instruction (Second edition). The Guilford Press. https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy.queensu.ca/lib/queen-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1115202

Derewianka, B. (2020). “A Functional Approach to Language.” In Exploring how texts work (2nd edition.). Primary English Teaching Association Australia PETAA. https://onq.queensu.ca/content/enforced/1036815-CONT938SPR25002S25/A%20Functional%20Approach%20to%20Language.pdf?ou=1036815

Finley, T. (2014, January 2). 8 Strategies for Teaching Academic Language. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/8-strategies-teaching-academic-language-todd-finley

Hochman, J. C., & Wexler, N. (2023, July 13). One Sentence at a Time. American Federation of Teachers. https://www.aft.org/ae/summer2017/hochman_wexler

National Literacy Trust. (2013). A guide to text types: Narrative, non-fiction and poetry. Thomas Talis School. https://www.thomastallisschool.com/uploads/2/2/8/7/2287089/guide_to_text_types_final-1.pdf

Townsend, Dianna (2015). Who’s Using the Language? Supporting Middle School Students With Content Area Academic Language. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 58(5), 376–387. doi: 10.1002/jaal.374

Zwiers, J. (2014). “Chapter 3: Cultivating Academic Language Acquisition” in  Building academic language: meeting Common Core standards across disciplines, grades 5-12 (Second edition.). Jossey-Bass. (pp. 47-77)